(PCC) Program on Chinese Cities – Thoughts on Overseas Travels Series
Authors:
Hong Chen, Ph.D. Candidate, School of Public Administration, Zhejiang University; Visiting Scholar, Department of City and Regional Planning, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Email Hong Chen
Tan Li, Associate Researcher, Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Center, Ministry of Natural Resources; Visiting Scholar, Department of City and Regional Planning, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Email Tan Li
On August 16, 2023, Jim Justice, the Governor of West Virginia, USA, announced that Fidelis New Energy, LLC would establish the Mountaineer GigaSystem, a zero-carbon hydrogen production project, and the Monarch Cloud Campus, a data center campus, in Mason County, West Virginia (Figures 1–3). This project will utilize natural gas from the Marcellus and Utica shale formations, solar energy, and wind energy as renewable energy sources, adopting FidelisH2® technology along with Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) technology to produce zero-carbon hydrogen over its full lifecycle.
The project will be developed in four phases, with each phase requiring an investment of approximately $2 billion (excluding the investments for the data center and greenhouses). Once all four phases of the Mountaineer GigaSystem are fully operational, it is expected to permanently store approximately 10 million tons of CO₂ annually, generating over $100 million in revenue for West Virginia. The selection of Mason County as the site for this project will effectively drive West Virginia’s energy transition into a new era of zero-carbon emissions.
Currently, the world is undergoing an unprecedented energy transition. Driven by the need to address energy crises, mitigate climate change, and promote economic prosperity, the global energy system is shifting from a carbon-intensive fossil fuel-based structure to a low-carbon system centered on clean energy [1]. However, the transition from fossil fuels to low-carbon and zero-carbon energy still faces multiple challenges, including high technological costs, policy coordination difficulties, and weak social adaptability. Traditional coal-producing regions, in particular, must confront additional challenges such as a single-industry economic structure, limited employment alternatives, and deep economic dependence on the coal industry [2].
Given the varying economic development stages and resource endowments of different countries, how to balance a stable energy supply with a green, low-carbon transition remains both a shared goal and a major challenge. Similar to China’s coal-dominated energy structure [3], West Virginia is one of the most important coal-producing states in the United States. Over nearly a century of development, the coal industry has become the backbone of the state’s economy and a key driver of economic growth. However, with resource depletion and stricter environmental policies, this historically century-old coal energy state has actively promoted energy restructuring in recent years, achieving notable progress, particularly in the development of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power. The introduction of Fidelis’ zero-carbon hydrogen production project marks another breakthrough in West Virginia’s clean energy sector.
Governor Jim Justice stated: “The zero-carbon hydrogen production project in Mason County will significantly propel West Virginia’s future development, supporting the successful launch of some highly promising emerging industries.”
Exploring West Virginia’s energy development and transition path, as well as the mechanisms influencing this transformation, helps us understand how traditional coal-producing regions can rebuild a new balance between economic restructuring and environmental protection, offering valuable insights for global energy transitions (Figure 4).
1. Energy Development and Transition in West Virginia
1.1 The Century-Long Rise and Prosperity of a Coal-Dominant Energy State (Mid-19th Century – Late 20th Century)
West Virginia is located in the southeastern United States, in a mountainous inland region. Most of the state is situated within the Appalachian Mountains, with no plains, earning it the nickname “The Mountain State.” The state is rich in mineral resources and is the second-largest coal-producing state in the United States. Its coal production accounts for approximately 20% of the nation’s total coal output, and its coal exports exceed 50% of total U.S. coal exports. West Virginia ranks first in the nation in bituminous coal production, with natural gas reserves of 6.9 billion cubic meters and oil reserves of 53 million barrels.
After a century of development, West Virginia has become a leading energy state, integrating coal mining, coal-fired power generation, and the chemical industry. Since the mid-19th century, the state has been one of the major coal-producing regions in the United States.
During the Second Industrial Revolution (1860–1920), demand for coal surged as it became a primary energy source for steam locomotives, steel production, and electricity generation. The rapid expansion of West Virginia’s coal industry was further driven by technological advancements in mining and transportation, strengthening the state’s dominance in the national coal market.
In the 20th century, especially during World War I and World War II, coal demand soared, and West Virginia’s coal production reached historic highs. The state became one of the nation’s largest coal producers, supplying coal for domestic steel production, railroad transportation, and power plants, while also exporting coal overseas. West Virginia emerged as one of the leading electricity-producing and exporting states, cementing itself as a critical energy hub in the United States.
At the same time, the number of coal miners grew substantially, allowing coal companies to expand rapidly. The coal industry in West Virginia experienced unprecedented prosperity, fueling economic growth and shaping the cultural and social fabric of local communities. Many families relied on coal mining as their primary livelihood.
Following the 1973 global energy crisis, oil prices skyrocketed, making coal a viable alternative and temporarily revitalizing West Virginia’s coal industry. Additionally, the chemical industry, particularly the petrochemical and basic chemical sectors, developed into another major pillar of the state’s economy.
1.2 The Decline of the Traditional Energy Industry and the Stagnation of New Transformations (Late 20th Century – Early 21st Century)
With the changing global energy structure, West Virginia’s coal industry began to face sustainability challenges and the pressure of a diversified energy structure in the late 20th century.
First, changes in domestic and international energy demand directly led to the decline of the coal industry. As the economy developed and industrialization and urbanization accelerated, countries around the world gradually realized the vulnerability of a single-energy structure and began seeking diversified energy supplies to ensure energy security and supply stability. On the one hand, oil, with its high energy density, ease of transportation, high combustion efficiency, relatively low pollution, and diverse applications, gradually replaced coal as the primary energy source for national development.
On the other hand, after the 1973 global energy crisis, in order to reduce dependence on oil and coal, governments worldwide introduced policies to encourage the development of a diversified energy structure and promote technological innovation in renewable energy. Nuclear energy, natural gas, and hydropower gradually entered the energy strategies of various countries, becoming key choices for reducing the risks of energy supply fluctuations.
Against this backdrop, the United States, Europe, Japan, and other major economies took the lead in energy policy reforms, promoting new energy development through subsidies, tax incentives, and research funding support.
In 1974, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) established the International Energy Agency (IEA) to adjust member states’ policies in response to the oil crisis, strengthening long-term cooperation to reduce dependence on oil imports.
In 1978, then U.S. President Jimmy Carter signed the National Energy Act of 1978, the first comprehensive U.S. energy law, aimed at increasing domestic energy supply and ensuring energy security, effectively addressing the oil crisis.
Additionally, global attention to energy efficiency was increasing, leading to the emergence of various energy-saving technologies and industrial energy efficiency improvement projects. These adjustments were not only necessary responses to the energy crisis but also laid the foundation for subsequent clean energy and low-carbon transitions.
Second, the implementation of environmental policies had a profound and overwhelming impact on the coal industry.
From a domestic perspective in the United States, in 1970, the U.S. government enacted the Clean Air Act, establishing national air quality standards and requiring states to implement programs that met these national standards.
In 1972, the government passed the Clean Water Act, which established a water permit system, requiring all entities discharging pollutants into water bodies to obtain permits and comply with discharge standards.
Since coal mining, processing, and combustion produce large amounts of CO₂, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and industrial wastewater, coal companies had to install pollution treatment systems for wastewater, exhaust gases, and solid waste, which further increased production costs, placing a heavy burden on coal enterprises and exerting immense pressure on West Virginia’s coal mines.
From an international perspective, with rising global concerns over climate change, the international community increasingly questioned fossil fuels, especially the high-pollution combustion of coal.
After the signing of the Paris Agreement in 2016, countries worldwide set carbon reduction targets and adjusted their industries and energy structures in response to climate change.
As the global energy structure continues to transition toward clean energy, West Virginia, as a coal-dependent region, has had to face the economic and social impacts of this global trend.
By the late 20th century, coal mines gradually shut down, leaving tens of thousands of miners unemployed, while many towns that depended on coal mining suffered economic decline.
The shrinking coal industry not only reduced employment opportunities but also weakened local government revenues.
According to data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), total U.S. coal production saw a slow rise from 2001 but began to decline continuously around 2008.
The number of coal workers also decreased, closely following the trend in coal production, demonstrating that the drop in coal demand inevitably led to massive layoffs of coal workers (Figure 5).
Moreover, West Virginia’s total coal production followed a similar trend to the overall U.S. coal industry, declining from 147 million tons in 2001 to 60.98 million tons in 2022, a 58.5% decrease (Figure 6).
James Van Nostrand, a professor at West Virginia University College of Law and director of the Center for Energy and Sustainable Development, offers a critical perspective on the state’s energy transition, identifying the fundamental reasons for its slow progress. In his book The Coal Trap: How West Virginia Was Left Behind in the Clean Energy Revolution, he highlights that the primary challenges West Virginia faces in its energy transition stem from its dependence on coal, political resistance to change, and insufficient investment in alternative energy technologies. He argues that if West Virginia continues to cling to its traditional energy development model, it will be swept away by the tide of the clean energy revolution. Conversely, if state leadership shifts course, breaks free from coal dependence, adopts cleaner energy technologies, and implements forward-looking policy incentives, West Virginia can still play a significant role in the U.S. energy transition [4].
1.3 The Direction and Major Practices of the Transition from Traditional to Clean Energy (Early 21st Century to Present)
Faced with these challenges, West Virginia has gradually recognized the necessity of transitioning from a coal-dominated energy structure to a more diversified and sustainable clean energy model. Consequently, the state has undertaken significant reform initiatives in energy transition legislation, technological innovation, and industrial upgrading.
Energy Transition Legislation
In 2021, the federal government enacted the Energy Infrastructure Act, injecting substantial momentum into West Virginia’s energy transition. This legislation, drafted and championed by U.S. Senator Joe Manchin (Democrat, West Virginia), chairman of the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee, provides extensive funding support for renewable energy, carbon capture technologies (carbon capture, utilization, and storage [CCUS], direct air carbon capture), energy storage and efficiency, industrial emissions management, critical mineral development, hydrogen energy, and other energy technologies and demonstration projects. For instance, approximately $700 million was allocated for the reclamation of abandoned mine lands in West Virginia. Additionally, under the ReImagine Appalachia initiative, the federal government committed to allocating an average of $1.6 billion annually to West Virginia from 2021 to 2030, alongside $3.6 billion in private investments, creating approximately 41,000 jobs—enough to lower the state’s unemployment rate to 3% [5].
In 2022, the Biden administration passed the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), further increasing policy funding for clean energy projects, CCUS technology, the Just Transition Fund, and miners’ health protections. These measures significantly accelerated West Virginia’s energy transition process.
That same year, West Virginia enacted legislation repealing its 1996 nuclear energy ban. The original ban prohibited the construction of new nuclear power plants in the state unless several conditions were met, including safe and reliable nuclear waste disposal, no significant risks to public health and the environment, adequate emergency response capabilities, sufficient federal funding support, and economic viability for the state. The repeal of this ban signals West Virginia’s openness to energy diversification. Moreover, the state government has begun implementing legislation focused on solar, wind, and hydrogen energy development, actively supporting renewable energy generation. This marks a significant shift for a state traditionally reliant on coal-fired power.
Technological Innovation and Industrial Upgrading
Fidelis New Energy, a leading energy transition company, specializes in infrastructure development, investment in renewable fuels and low-carbon or carbon-negative products, and carbon capture and storage. With a long-standing presence in the CCUS sector, Fidelis has extensive experience in developing carbon storage assets along the U.S. Gulf Coast and in Europe. In 2023, West Virginia actively introduced a zero-carbon hydrogen production project led by Fidelis.
On one hand, hydrogen is a clean energy source with vast application potential in transportation, industry, and power generation. Its development and utilization can create a significant number of jobs. On the other hand, Fidelis aims to utilize captured CO₂ to enable “carbon utilization.” For example, the captured CO₂ can be used to cool data centers, helping them achieve carbon neutrality, or be supplied—along with waste heat—to greenhouses to support carbon-free agricultural production, thereby reducing the project’s carbon footprint.
According to KPMG’s Understanding the Hydrogen Industry report, as of 2020, only 0.7% of global hydrogen production incorporated CCUS technology, primarily in fossil fuel-based production. This underscores that zero-carbon hydrogen production is an emerging and urgently needed field (Figure 7).
Therefore, Fidelis New Energy’s zero-carbon hydrogen production project is not only the first large-scale application of clean energy technology in West Virginia but also sets a benchmark for the state’s energy transition. It is foreseeable that the implementation of this project will lead West Virginia’s shift from a traditional coal-based economy to a clean energy economy, marking a milestone in the state’s clean energy transition and demonstrating the strong support of the state government for renewable energy development.
2 The Main Mechanisms Driving West Virginia’s Energy Transition
Globally, energy transition has become a key strategy for addressing energy crises, combating climate change, and achieving regional sustainable development. However, energy transition is influenced by multiple factors, including resource endowments, policy orientation, technological capabilities, capital support, and social acceptance. The implementation pathways and challenges vary significantly across different regions [6]. As a traditional coal-producing state in the U.S., West Virginia’s energy transition has benefited from the combined effects of various synergistic factors.
2.1 The Natural Advantage of Resource Endowments
Resource endowment forms the foundation of energy transition, determining the potential and pathway for clean energy development. West Virginia’s abundant shale gas reserves, particularly in the Marcellus and Utica shale formations, serve as a crucial pillar supporting the state’s energy transition. As a feedstock for clean energy projects, the abundant shale gas resources provide a sustainable raw material for hydrogen production, playing a significant role in the process of producing zero-carbon hydrogen from natural gas. Furthermore, the state’s wind and solar energy potential offers favorable conditions for the deployment of renewable energy projects, with significant wind resource advantages in river valleys and mountainous areas. For instance, the small town of Keyser in northeastern West Virginia is geographically well-suited for wind farm development and has chosen wind power as its future energy transition direction amid the wave of clean energy and diversified economic transformation (Figure 8). Additionally, idle industrial sites and former coal mining areas are well-suited for solar energy projects, providing West Virginia with a foundation for diversified energy development.
2.2 The Guiding Role of Supportive Policies
Policy support is key to driving energy transition, as it effectively reduces costs and incentivizes renewable energy development. With backing from both the federal and state governments, West Virginia’s energy transition has been significantly bolstered by institutional safeguards. The federal Inflation Reduction Act has substantially lowered the startup costs of clean energy projects through tax incentives and direct subsidies, encouraging investment in the clean energy sector. Notably, the Section 45V production tax credit and the Section 45Q carbon capture tax credit are crucial for enhancing energy security and ensuring the economic viability of clean energy transition projects. The ReImagine Appalachia initiative and clean energy programs have generated substantial job opportunities and attracted significant investments in West Virginia.
At the state level, the government has implemented measures such as streamlining administrative approval processes and improving public service infrastructure to create a favorable policy environment for renewable energy projects. Additionally, the state government has introduced a series of incentive plans for the Mountaineer GigaSystem project, including agreeing to additional geological assessments to determine the target storage capacity and establishing a pore space agreement granting CCS exclusivity in designated areas. Under the state government agreement, Fidelis New Energy will receive a $62.5 million forgivable state loan, including $25 million for early-stage development, covering permitting and drilling sequestration wells. If these activities are completed within three years, the loan will be forgiven. The remaining $37.5 million will be forgiven once the project meets specific employment and investment commitments.
Policies also focus on workforce skill development by providing education and training to help workers from the traditional coal industry transition to clean energy jobs, ensuring a smooth shift in the energy sector. Effective policy guidance has not only significantly enhanced West Virginia’s enthusiasm for energy transition but has also been one of the key factors attracting Fidelis New Energy to select the state as the location for its project.
2.3 Infrastructure Development and Support
Modernized infrastructure is essential for ensuring a stable supply and efficient distribution of clean energy. In response to the growing demand for clean energy, West Virginia has actively increased the capacity and flexibility of its power transmission and distribution networks while upgrading its electricity grid and natural gas pipelines to accommodate hydrogen production, transportation, and storage requirements. The state’s grid has been significantly enhanced to integrate and regulate intermittent renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, reducing supply instability and promoting the seamless application of clean energy.
Moreover, these infrastructure upgrades support improved transmission efficiency for low-carbon energy, minimizing energy losses, enhancing transmission security, and ensuring the stable supply and utilization of hydrogen and renewable energy within the region. These developments provide a critical material foundation for the efficient use of clean energy and the continued progress of West Virginia’s energy transition.
2.4 Job Security in the Clean Energy Market
The rise of the clean energy sector has partially offset the employment losses caused by the decline of the coal industry. For example, the Mountaineer GigaSystem project is expected to create a large number of local jobs, including 800 full-time positions and 4,200 construction jobs. Additionally, West Virginia has collaborated with businesses and educational institutions to implement technical retraining programs, equipping former coal workers with the skills needed to transition into the hydrogen, wind, and solar energy industries.
This employment security mechanism not only ensures a stable workforce for the local economy but also enhances community acceptance of energy transition, reducing social resistance to the shift toward clean energy.
2.5 The Innovative Application of CCUS Technology
Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technology has played a critical role in West Virginia’s clean energy projects. The Mountaineer GigaSystem project utilizes CCUS technology to capture CO₂ for data center cooling and agricultural production, maximizing its economic benefits. This innovative application significantly reduces carbon emissions in the hydrogen production process, providing crucial support for achieving the project’s “lifecycle zero-carbon emissions” goal. The introduction of CCUS technology has opened new pathways for the clean utilization of fossil energy, laying a technological foundation for future clean energy development.
2.6 Summary
West Virginia’s energy transition has not been a smooth journey; instead, it has faced numerous obstacles and challenges. After the Obama administration introduced the Clean Power Plan in 2015, West Virginia joined other “coal states” in suing the federal government, arguing that the plan harmed the state’s economy and coal mining jobs. This lawsuit underscored the state government’s deep reliance on the coal industry and its initial resistance to clean energy policies.
Meanwhile, thousands of coal miners and their families held demonstrations in the state capital, Charleston, protesting the closure of coal mines and job losses resulting from clean energy policies. In 2021, some wind power projects in West Virginia’s eastern mountainous regions encountered local opposition due to concerns over noise, landscape disruption, and potential threats to wildlife. These objections led to delays or even cancellations of certain projects—examples of the many challenges faced by the state’s energy transition.
Nevertheless, despite these hurdles, West Virginia has ultimately taken firm steps toward energy transition. Today, the state is no longer solely defined as a traditional coal powerhouse but has emerged as a model for energy transformation. This shift has not only improved the quality of life for local residents but has also provided valuable lessons for other resource-dependent states.
3 Lessons from the Transition of Coal-Dependent Regions
As one of the coal-producing states in the United States, West Virginia has undergone a significant transformation in its energy transition, moving from “resistance and opposition” to “passive acceptance” and eventually to “proactive leadership.” The effective experiences gained throughout this transformation process provide valuable insights and references for other regions reliant on coal development.
3.1 Adapting to Local Conditions: Optimizing the Regional Energy Structure
Adapting to local conditions is the primary principle for energy transition in coal-dependent regions. Energy transition impacts the economy, society, and environment of these regions in various ways, and these effects differ based on geographical location. Among them, resource endowment and ecological environment differences determine the transition pathway [6]. West Virginia has focused on utilizing its local resources, particularly the natural gas reserves in the Marcellus and Utica shale formations, which have proven essential for reducing coal dependency and developing low-carbon energy. By repurposing local resources for low-carbon hydrogen production, alongside investments in renewable energy and carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies, the state has demonstrated a balanced resource optimization model. Similarly, coal-intensive regions can promote economically feasible and ecologically sustainable transitions by leveraging their abundant local resources, such as natural gas or renewable energy. This approach not only supports local industrial development but also aligns with national and global environmental standards.
3.2 Leveraging Policy and Technological Innovation as Dual Drivers
Energy transition is not just a process of resource conversion but also a result of policy and technological advancements. The Inflation Reduction Act in the U.S. includes Sections 45Q and 45V, which provide tax incentives that significantly lower the financial burden on low-carbon projects. These policy incentives not only encourage capital investment but also drive technological innovation, accelerating the development of emerging industries such as CCUS and zero-carbon hydrogen production.
Practical experience has proven that sustained policy support and effective technological innovation are critical to achieving energy security and green transition. For instance, Germany’s Ruhr region—a historically coal-dependent economic powerhouse—has successfully implemented a similar policy-driven framework to encourage investment in renewable energy innovation, gradually reducing its reliance on coal. Drawing from these models, policymakers in other regions can implement customized policies to drive technological advancements and address the economic, social, and environmental challenges associated with energy transition.
3.3 Seizing Opportunities: Promoting Economic Diversification
Energy transition requires seizing developmental opportunities and fostering broad participation across society. In recent years, as the global energy transition accelerates, West Virginia has gradually reduced its dependence on the coal industry by leveraging federal support (such as the Inflation Reduction Act) and implementing economic restructuring measures at the state level. The state’s experience demonstrates that capitalizing on policy and market opportunities can not only create jobs but also enhance the value-added potential of the industrial chain, ensuring long-term social and economic stability.
Additionally, collaboration between the state government, local communities, businesses, and educational institutions has facilitated labor market transformation. Workers from the traditional coal sector have successfully transitioned into the clean energy industry through retraining and skill enhancement programs. This proactive approach has mitigated large-scale unemployment concerns and reduced the societal anxiety associated with energy transition, minimizing the social impact of coal industry decline on communities.
4 Reflections and Insights
A review and analysis of West Virginia’s energy transition journey reveal that energy transition is a complex, multi-dimensional systemic process. It is not merely about “phasing out coal” but rather a comprehensive exploration of economic, social, and environmental development in tandem. This is particularly challenging yet full of opportunities for coal-dependent regions like West Virginia. The transition process goes beyond structural energy changes—it entails the reshaping of economic models, the evolution of societal perspectives, and the coordination of policy and technological innovation. Several valuable insights can be drawn from this experience:
First, policy guidance and public participation are the core driving forces behind the transition. West Virginia’s experience demonstrates that energy transition requires effective guidance and incentive measures to encourage proactive involvement from local governments and businesses. At the same time, the public plays a critical role in policy implementation. The success of any policy depends on public support and cooperation. By strengthening public awareness and guidance, resistance can gradually be mitigated, fostering broad social consensus and establishing a solid societal foundation for the transition.
Second, energy justice is a crucial consideration in the transition process. While policies aim to achieve environmental goals, they must also consider local economic development needs and regional economic disparities to avoid a “one-size-fits-all” approach. Ensuring balanced interests among stakeholders is essential. Additionally, attention should be given to low-income groups and coal industry workers significantly impacted by the transition to prevent further socioeconomic inequalities during the shift.
Third, revitalizing economic vitality is fundamental to the transition. Economic development is the foundation of a region’s prosperity and stability. An energy transition detached from economic progress is unsustainable. Therefore, repurposing traditional coal mining resources and exploring diversified economic development pathways are essential for ensuring the long-term viability of energy transition efforts.
Furthermore, West Virginia’s energy transition naturally brings to mind China’s traditional coal-producing province—Shanxi. In 2015, West Virginia and Shanxi formally became sister regions, engaging in extensive and productive cooperation in energy, environmental protection, technology, and education. Under China’s “dual carbon” (carbon peaking and carbon neutrality) goals, Shanxi has actively adjusted its energy structure, restricting the development and expansion of new coal mines while shutting down inefficient ones. It has promoted the efficient and clean use of coal resources while increasing investment in and development of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar. As a result, in some years, Shanxi’s coal production has seen slight declines—mainly due to industry restructuring. However, coal remains a critical pillar of Shanxi’s economy.
It is well known that coal is a non-renewable resource and will eventually be depleted. Additionally, global trade uncertainties and environmental pressures highlight the urgent need for coal-dependent provinces like Shanxi to break free from their reliance on coal. By leveraging the sister-state relationship with West Virginia, Shanxi can engage in mutual learning and exchange, seizing the historic opportunity presented by the rise of new energy industries. This will enable it to transition away from coal dependence and pursue a sustainable, clean energy development pathway.
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